Utilitarianism is an approach that gives special prominence to utility, promotes getting maximum happiness and pleasure from life. The initial development of this started in the framework of normative ethics. One should distinguish between classic utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill), and consequentialism (Anscombe). The former one proclaims hedonism (happiness-oriented lifestyle) to be the utmost value. Jeremy Bentham in his “An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation” described the principle of utility as a measure for evaluating the degree (or quantity) of happiness not only at individual, but at governmental level. Mill developed the utilitarian theory by adding qualitative component. Thus, he distinguished higher and lower pleasures, defined the concept of desire. The latter principle evaluates the degree of utility by the outcomes, or consequences that it produces. Thus, if outcomes are useful, utility is justified, and vice versus.
Ideal Utilitarianism
The further development of utilitarianism continued in the twentieth century, when new trends started to appear. Thus, ideal utilitarianism connected with the names of Hastings Rashdall and G.E. Moore asserted that a range of values could be idealized. Still, such absolute values as beauty and love will evidently make the world better.
Act and Rule Utilitarianism
This subdivision of utilitarianism tried to work out the rules for rational thinking in a utilitarian way. Smart and McCloskey agreed on the definition of act utilitarianism as the right action, which maximizes utility; while rule utilitarianism was justified by the action, which conforms to the rule of utility. Criticism of act and rule utilitarianism is that if breaking a rule produces more utility, it becomes of greater value. Thus, and exception of rule, or a sub-rule is formed. The problem related to this process is that depending on a particular case there might be such a great amount of exceptions that a rule ceases to fulfill its function.
Two-Level Utilitarianism
In developing this theory, R.M. Hare suggests a way of solving controversies between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism by creating more general rules that would be applied in order to increase the common good and decrease harm. According to Hare’s model one can think as an ‘archangel’ or a ‘prole’ depending on the situation. However, the general rules are based on limitations, and it is a person’s responsibility to apply critical thinking skills in order to solve this or that situation, where intuitive rules failed to be useful.
Preference Utilitarianism
This theory was put forward by John Harsanyi, and further developed by R.M Hare, Peter Singer, Richard Brandt. The essence of preference utilitarianism is that people stream to maximize pleasure and minimize pain by default, and it does not mean that all the people are intrinsically utilitarianists. Instead, it is argued that personal autonomy should be characteristic to every individual, and it is his/her preference, or choice to act in a particular way. Support of irrational preferences (or ‘manifest preferences’), which result from erroneous arguments, or strong momentary emotions, involves the respectively negative outcomes. Followers of this doctrine are sure that only rational and well-grounded preferences are …